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"必要性测试"(necessity test)是世界贸易组织(WTO)规则协调国家管制主权与自由贸易冲突的核心概念。WTO专家组和上诉机构对该测试的解释是一个发展过程,且与关于"必要性测试"规则谈判中一些成员的立场存在差异,成员在关于"必要性测试"的规则谈判中也难以达成一致。由于WTO采纳裁决报告采取逆向协商一致的方式,以及WTO"立法"的低效,WTO内处理"必要性测试"问题面临挑战。在国内规制为主的非关税壁垒日益突出的情况下,"必要性测试"解释问题将成为影响贸易的一个重要问题,亟需学者深入研究并提供政策建议。我国一方面需要"补齐差距",在国内行政立法中遵循WTO"必要性测试"要求。同时,我国也应该基于我国国情和WTO内的现状,对相关问题做必要性调整,甚至建设性贡献。
Abstract:"Necessity test"is the core concept in the WTO rules addressing the conflict between regulatory sovereignty and free trade.The interpretation of"necessity test"by the WTO DSB has been an evolving process.It is neither all in line with the positions of the Members in rule negotiations in the WTO on"necessity test".To make it worse,Members cannot reach consensus with regard to the rule for"necessity test".Due to the negative consensus in adopting DSB reports and the low efficiency of the WTO legislation,it is a great challenge to deal with the"Necessity test"in the WTO.Currently,non-tariff barriers originated from domestic regulations are becoming the major challenge for multilateral trade system.The interpretation of"necessity test"is for certain a impressing issue to be further explored.China firstly needs to fill the gap with the WTO in"Necessity test"in its administrative legislations.At the same time,China should based on its domestic reality and the current situation within the WTO,to modify,and even contribute to concerned issues.
1GATT,Art.XI,para.1.
2由于WTO内“安全例外”比较特殊,本文将不论及“安全例外”条款中的“必要性测试”问题——如果“安全例外”条款存在一般意义上的“必要性测试”的话。
3See Panagiotis Delimatsis,“Determining the Necessity of Domestic Regulations in Services:The Best is Yet to Come”,The European Journal of International Law,Vol.19,No.2,2008,p.400.
4See Mads Andenas,Stefan Zleptnig,“Proportionality:WTO Law:In Comparative Perspective”,Texas International Law Journal,Vol.42,2007,p.372.
5See Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 17 MAY 1999,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/1,14June 1999,S/WPDR/M/1,14June 1999,para.7.
6See Committee on Trade and Environment,GATT/WTO DISPUTE SETTLEMENT PRACTICE RELATING TO ARTICLE XX PARAGRAPHS(b),(d),AND(g)OF GATT,Note by the Secretariat,Revision,WT/CTE/W/53/Rev.1,26October 1998,para.42.
7参见世界贸易组织:《贸易与公共政策:21世纪的非关税措施探析》,中国商务出版社2013年版,第1页。
8同注4。
1范剑虹:《欧盟与德国的比例原则——内涵、渊源、适用与在中国的借鉴》,载《浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版)》2010年10月第30卷第5期。
2详见下文介绍。
3See Group on Environmental Measures and International Trade,Agenda Item 1:Trade Provisions Contained in Existing Mul Tilateral Environmental Agreements Vis--Vis Principles and Provsions,Ter/W/16/Rev.1,Note by the Secretariat,Revision,14October 1993,para.3.
4United States-Section 337of the Tariff ACT of 1930,Report by the Panel,adopted on 7 November 1989,(L/6439-36S/345)16January 1989,para.5.26.
5Thailand-Restrictions on Imorta Tion of and Internal Taxes on Cigarettes,Report of the Panel adopted on 7November 1990,(DS10/R-37S/200),5October 1990,para.75.
1如1992年美国酒类销售案中,专家组认为美国未能证明争议措施是最少贸易限制,并因此裁决美国措施不符合GATT第20条。United States-Measures Affecting Alcoholic and Malt Beverages,Report of the Panel adopted on 19June 1992,(DS23/R-39S/206),16 March 1992,para.5.52。
2See Axel Desmedt,“Proportionality in WTO Law”,Journal of International Economic Law,Vol.4,No.3,p.443.2001.
3See Deborah Akoth Osiro,“GATT/WTO Necessity Analysis:Evolutionary Interpretation and its Impact on the Autonomy of Domestic Regulation”,Legal Issues of European Integration,Vol.29,No.2,2002,p.129.
4See Korean-Measures Affecting Imports of Fresh,Chilled and Frozen Beef,(Korean-Beef)AB-2000-8,WT/DS161/AB/R,WT/DS169/AB/R,11December 2000,para.152.
5同上,para.161。
6同上,para.164。
7同上,para.162,164。
8Korean-Beef,Report of the Panel,WT/DS161/R,WT/DS169/R,31July 2000,para.675.
9See Alan Sykes,“The Least Trade Restrictive Means”,The University of Chicago Law Review,Vol.70,2003,p.417.
See European Communities-Measures Affecting Asbestos and Asbestos-Containing Products,(EC-Asbestos)Report of the Appellate Body,WT/DS135/AB/R,para.172.
同上,para.172。
1See United States-Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services,(US-Gambling)AB-2005-1,Report of the Appellate Body,WT/DS285/AB/R,7April 2005,para.306.
2同上,para.70。
3See Brazil-Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres,AB-2007-4,Report of the Appellate Body,WT/DS332/AB/R,3December 2007,para.182.
4See Decision on Professional Services,Adopted by the Council for Trade in Services on 1March 1995,S/L/3,4April 1995.
5See Disciplines on Domestic Regulation in the Accountancy Sector,Adopted by the Council for Trade in Services on 14December 1998,S/L/64,17December 1998.
6同上,para.2。
7See Trade in Services,Decision on Domestic Regulation,Adopted by the Council for Trade in Services on 26April 1999,S/L/70,28April 1999.
8See Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 17MAY 1999,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/1,14June 1999,S/WPDR/M/1,14June 1999,para.7.
9SPS协定第5.6条脚注规定,“就第5条第6款而言,除非存在如下情况,否则一措施对贸易的限制不超过所要求的程度:存在从技术和经济可行性考虑可合理获得的另一措施,可实现适当的卫生与植物卫生保护水平,且对贸易的限制大大减少。”该规定是WTO规则唯一关于“必要性测试”相关的明确规定。该规定为成员在GATS第6条项下“必要性测试”谈判,以及WTO专家组和上诉机构对“必要性测试”的解释广泛援引。
1在美、欧国内法立法和司法实践中,“必要”这一用语有时与“比例”和“成本—收益分析”混用。有时,它们之间有明确的区分,有时则互换使用。WTO内的必要性测试,与美、欧,特别是欧盟的司法实践相比并不发达,因此,在本文WTO语境下的分析中,“必要”将被视为一个一般意义上的概念,其测试将包括“适当性”、“必要性”、“严格比例原则”和“成本—收益分析”等更具明确法律含义的表述。
2髙秦伟:《论欧盟行政法上的比例原则》,载《政法论丛》2012年第2期。
3陈喜峰:《简论欧盟法中的相称性原则》,载《法学评论》2003年第5期,第82页。
4参见第97页注1,范剑虹文。
5国内该方面论述很多,参见前引9,范剑虹文。参见杨临宏:《行政法中的比例原则研究》,载《法制与社会发展》2001年第6期,第42至44页;陈喜峰:《简论欧盟法中的相称性原则》,载《法学评论》2003年第5期,第81页;韩秀丽:《寻找WTO法中的比例原则》,载《现代法学》2005年第27卷第4期,第180页;前引本页注2,高秦伟文。
6Judgment of the Court(Fifth Chamber)of 13November 1990.The Queen v Minister of Agriculture,Fisheries and Food and Secretary of State for Health,ex parte:Fedesa and others.Reference for a preliminary ruling:High Court of Justice,Queen’s Bench Division-United Kingdom.Substances having a hormonal action-Validity of Directive 88/146/EEC.Case C-331/88,para.14.
7参见第97注1,范剑虹文。
8这里需要特别指出的是:“严格比例原则”有时指措施与目标之间的关系,有时则涉及更为宽泛的“权衡”(weighting)和“平衡”(balancing);此时,多种因素、特别措施带来的实现目标的积极因素,与措施实施带来的对其他目标的消极因素的影响要作全面的权衡分析。全面的权衡分析因涉及冲突的目标的平衡,而显得尤其复杂和敏感。基于此,Joel Trachtman将“必要性测试”分为四个步骤:适当性、必要性、合比例和平衡分析(或美国法意义上的成本—收益分析)。参见Joel Trachtman,“Trade and…Problems,Cost-Benefit Analysis and Subsidiarity”,European Journal of Economic Law,Vol.9,No.1,1998,pp.35-36。
9参见本页注6。
1WTO在司法实践中更是如此。后文将论及,由于WTO并无明确关于“比例原则”的规则规定,更无“严格比例原则”的规则规定,专家组和上诉机构在争端解决中,往往只对案例进行分析,但并不提及其法律依据。因此,在做“必要性测试”的时候,如涉及“严格比例原则”或者“成本—收益分析”意义上的分析,专家组和上诉机构的一个处理办法是,将第二步的“必要”分析与后面的步骤整合在一起,综合分析后得出相应的结论。从Panagiotis Delimatsis似乎认为,上诉机构在韩国—牛肉案中就是如此处理的。参见第98页注3,Panagiotis Delimatsis文,pp.388-389。
2See Consolidated Version of the Treaty Establishing the European Community,at http://www.frontex.europa.eu/assets/Legal_basis/12002E_EN.pdf,accessed 2012-7-25.
3Treaty establishing the European Community(consolidated version)-D.Protocols annexed to the Treaty establishing the European Community-Protocol(No 30)on the application of the principles of subsidiarity and proportionality(1997),Official Journal C 321E,29/12/2006,P.0308-0311,at http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:12006E/PRO/30:EN:HTML,accessed 2012-7-25,para.1.
4See Directive 2002/21/Ec of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7March 2002on a common regulatory framework for electronic communications networks and services(Framework Directive),24.4.2002,Official Journal of the European Communities,L 108/33,para.41.
5参见第100页注8,Joel Trachtman文,p.74。
6参见第100页注6,para.14。
7See Judgment of the Court of 5May 1998.-United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland v Commission of the European Communities.-Agriculture-Animal health-Emergency measures against bovine spongiform encephalopathy-‘Mad cow disease’.-Case C-180/96,para.96.
8Loren J.PIKE,etc.,Appellant,v.BRUCE CHURCH,INC.397 U.S.137(90S.Ct.844,25L.Ed.2d174 ),query at http://www.law.cornell.edu/,accessed 2012-08-10.
1Camps Newfound/Owatonna,INC.,Petitioner,v.TOWN OF HARRISON,MAINE,et al.520U.S.564117S.Ct.1590137L.Ed.2d852(520U.S.564117S.Ct.1590137L.Ed.2d852,520U.S.564117S.Ct.1590137L.Ed.2d852 ),query at http://www.law.cornell.edu/,accessed 2012-08-10.
2See Rennan,J.,Opinion of the Court,Supreme Court of The United States,449U.S.456,Minnesota v.Clover Leaf Creamery Co.Certiorari to The Supreme Court of Minnesota,No.79-1171,at http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0449_0456_ZO.html,accessed 2012-08-10.
3Douglas,J.,Opinion of the Court,Supreme Court of the United States,359U.S.520,Bibb v.Navajo Freight Lines,Inc.,at http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0359_0520_ZO.html#359_US_520 n5ref,accessed 2012-08-10,p.525.
4参见蒋红珍:《论必要性原则适用的困境及其出路》,载《现代法学》2006年第11期。
5参见Executive Order#12866Regulatory Planning and Review,http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/npr/library/direct/orders/2646.html,last visit 2015-01-15;于立深:《成本效益分析方法在行政法上的运用——以〈行政许可法〉第20、21条为例》,载《公法研究》2005年第2期。
6赵娟:《合理性原则与比例原则的比较研究—一个以判例为基础的思考》,《南京大学学报(哲学·人文科学·社会科学)》2002年第1期。
7参见第100页注2,高秦伟文。
8Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 25MAY 2000,Note by the Secretariat,S/Wpdr/M/6,29June 2000,para.5.Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report of the Meeting Held on 26June2009,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/41,24September 2009,para.3.
9比如,WTO秘书处文件认为,“必要”之规定是GATS第6条项下国内管制措施是否符合WTO规则的核心。参见Council for Trade in Services,Article VI:4of the Gats:Disciplines on Domestic Regulation Applicable to All Services,Note by the Secretariat,S/C/W/96,a March 1999,para.17.另见Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 29November 2001,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/14,29January 2002,para.53。
1早期谈判涉及的必要性测试内容可参见Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 11MAY 2001,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/11,7June 2001,Annex:Informal Summary of Discussions on the Checklist of Issues for Wpdr para.5-7。成员对“必要性测试”涉及的内容的讨论可参见Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 3July 2001,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/12,16August 2001,para.51-54。
2Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Communication from Brazli,Canada and the United States,Views on the Issue of the Necessity Test in the Disciplines on Domestic Regulation,S/WPDR/W/44,22 March 2011,para.1,8.
3Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 3December 2003,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/24,22January 2004,para.47.
4See Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report of the Mmmting Held on 18February 2011,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/48,17 March 2011,para.25.
5Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report of the Meeting Held on 23March 2011,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/49,11April 2011,para.13.
6参见上文,para.12。
7See Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Communication from Brazil and the Philippnes,Job(06)/133,2May 2006,available at http://iatp.org/files/451_2_80782.pdf,accessed 2012-08-04.
8参见第102页注8,S/WPDR/M/41,para.23。
9See Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Communication from the ACP Goup,Pro Development Principles for GATS Article VI:4 Negotiations,Revision,JOB(06)/136/Rev.1,19 June 2006,para.11,at http://www.citizen.org/documents/ACP%20Group%20Proposal.pdf,accessed 2012-08-02.
参见第102页注8,S/WPDR/M/41,para.12。
1Working Party on Domestic Regulation,communication from Australia,S/WPDR/W/1,19July 1999,para.1.
2参见第103页注4,para.10。
3See Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report of the Meeting Held on 22November 2010,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/47,31January 2011,para.29.
4参见第103页注4,para.9。
5参见上文,para.16。
6参见上文,para.12。
7参见上文,para.22。
8参见第102页注8,S/WPDR/M/41,para.18,13。
9参见第103页注4,para.19。
参见Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report of the Meeting Held on 27September 2011,S/WPDR/M/51 ,27October 2011。
参见第103页注3,S/WPDR/M/24,para.47。
同上,para.53。
1See Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 31March 2004,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/25,18 May 2004.Para.73.
2参见第103页注3,S/WPDR/M/24,para.58。
3参见第103页注1,S/WPDR/M/11,para.10。
4See Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 2October 2001,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/13,21November 2001,Annex:Informal Summary of Discussions on the Checklist of Issues for Wpdr,para.9.
5参见第103页注1,S/WPDR/M/11,para.18。
6See Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Communication form the European Communites and Their Member States,Domestic Regulation:Necessity and Transparency,S/WPDR/W/14,1 May 2001,para.13,28.
7同上,para.15。
8同上,para.24。
9参见第103页注1,S/WPDR/M/11,para.20。
同上,para.31。
参见第103页注1,S/WPDR/M/12,para.52。
参见本页注7,para.16。
1参见WTO秘书处文件Working Party on Domestic Regulation,“NECESSITY TESTs”In THE WTO,Note by the Secretariat,Addendum,S/WPDR/W/27/Add.1,18January 2011,para 84(a)。另见WTO秘书处关于该文件的介绍。参见第103页注4,para.6。相关案例中专家组和上诉机构的确作出了这样的裁决。如United States-Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline,Report of the Panel,WT/DS2/R,29January 1996,para.7.1;Report of Appellate Body,Australia—Measures Affecting Importation of Salmon,AB-1998-5,WT/DS18/AB/R,adopted on 6November1998,para.199,200-204。参见第96页注3,Panagiotis Delimatsis文,para.5.13;参见第97页注5,at para.73;Appellate Body Report,US-Gasoline,WT/DS2/AB/R,DSR 1996:I,at 30-31。
2参见第103页注5,para.43。
3参见第103页注4,para.11。
4参见第105页注2,para.73。
5参见本页注1,WT/DS18/AB/R,para.206-207。
6参见第98页注4,para.178。
7参见第98页注2,Axel Desmedt文,p.458。
8GATS序言使用了“国家政策目标”(“national policy objectives”)的用语。
9参见第105页注2,para.66。
转引自第96页注3,Panagiotis Delimatsis文,pp.394-395。
1参见第105页注5,para.9。美国政策制定涉及的目标远远超过现有WTO协定中例示的内容。如美国在制定管制政策时应考虑的因素包括:“保护公共健康、福利、安全、环保,以及促进经济增长、创新、提高竞争力、增加就业”;在考虑替代措施时,要考虑“潜在的经济、环保、公共健康和安全影响,及其他优势、分配影响和公平”,甚至“人的尊严”(human dignity)。参见The White House,Office of the Press Secretary,For Immediate Release,January18 ,2011,Improving Regulation and Regulatory Review-Executive Order,at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/01/18/improving-regulation-and-regulatory-review-executive-order,last access 2011-05-26。
2参见第103页注1,S/WPDR/M/11,para.31。
3同上,para.10。
4如巴西认为目标具有动态变迁性。Working Party on Domestic Regulation,Report on the Meeting Held on 20March 2001,Note by the Secretariat,S/WPDR/M/10,10 May 2001,para.32。
5参见第103页注1,S/WPDR/M/11,para.31。
6参见第105页注5,para.9。
7参见第98页注3,Deborah Akoth Osiro文,p.139。
8参见第106页注1,WT/DS18/AB/R,para.194。
1See European Communities-Measures Affecting Asbestos and Asbestos-Containing Products,Report of the Panel,WT/DS135/R,18September 2000,para.8.207.
2参见第99页注1,para.70。3See Mexico-Tax Measures on Soft Drinksand Other Beverages,Report of the Panel,WT/DS308/R,7October2005,para.8.188.
4See Mexico-Soft Drink,AB Report,para.74。
5See Korean-Beef,AB Report,para.180.
6参见本页注2,para.8.207。
7参见韩秀丽:《比例原则进入WTO法的必要性分析》,载《中共福建省委党校学报》2005年第8期。
8参见第103页注1,S/WPDR/M/11,para.31。尽管欧盟未必具有美国意义上的宪政特征——欧盟毕竟是一个主权国家间的安排——但欧盟在其发展过程中逐步具备了一些宪政特征。Christian Joerges认为,起初,如同WTO一样,欧盟不是明确的宪政体系,而是一个“治理”(governance)体系。但欧盟历时多年逐步形成一个“成熟的国家间治理安排”,其间,欧盟法院在1979年一个很小的案件——Cassis de Dijon中,“自己授予自己裁决成员立法合法性的权利——自己任命自己为宪政法院。这一举措具有重大的理论重要性并具有深远的实践影响。”参见Christian Joerges,“Free Trade with Hazardous Products?The Emergence of Transnational governance with Eroding State Governance”,European Foreign Affairs Review,Vol.10,No.4,2005,pp.553-574。Panagiotis Delimatsis也认为欧盟具有其独特性,即欧盟具有建立内部统一市场的政治意愿和超国家司法推进。参见第96页注3,Panagiotis Delimatsis文,p.383。我国学者认为,欧盟“已经进入超国家权力和成员主权势均力敌的均衡态势”,并具有适用“严格比例原则”之正当性。参见第101页注3,陈喜峰文;王千华:《评欧洲法院司法能动性的贡献及其限度》,载《法学评论》2001年第5期,第59-67页。
9Alan Sykes,“Regulatory Protectionism and the Law of International Trade”,The University of Chicago Law Review,Vol.66,No.1,1999,p.6-7,13,30.
1Robert Howse and Elisabeth Tuerk,“The WTO Impact on Internal Regulations-A Case Study of the Canada-EC Asbestos Dispute”,in Grainne de Burca and Janne Scott.Eds.,The EU and the WTO:Legal and Constitutional Issues,Oxford:Hart Publishing,2001,pp.283-284,314.
2See Tim Buthe,“The Globalization of Health and Safety Standards:Delegation of Regulatory Authority in the SPS Agreement of the 1994Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organization”,Law and Contemporary Problems,Vol.71:219,pp.219-255.
3Michael Ming Du,“Domestic Regulatory autonomy under the TBT Agreement:From Non-discrimination to Harmonization”,Chinese Journal of International Law,Vol.6,No.2,2007,pp.269-306.
4John McGinnis,Mark Movsesian,“The World Trade Constitution”,Harvard Law Review,Vol.114,No.2,Dec.2000,pp.519,515,604,pp.579-580.
5参见第98页注3,Deborah Akoth Osiro文,p.126,127。
6See Stephen Charnovitz,“Exploring the Environmental Exceptions in GATT Article XX”,Journal of World Trade,October 1991.
7参见第98页注3,Deborah Akoth Osiro文,p.127。
8同上,p.128。
1参见第109页注1,Robert Howse and Elisabeth Tuerk,p.315。
2See Meinhard Hilf,“Power,Rules and Principles-Which Orientation for WTO/GATT Law”,Journal of International Economic Law,Vol.4,No.1,2001,pp.111-130.
3参见第98页注2,Axel Desmedt文,p.469,476,478,478-479;参见第96页注4,Mads Andenas,Stefan Zleptnig文,pp.371-427。WTO文本存在“比例”原则的规定,如“与贸易相关的知识产权协定”第46条规定,知识产权救济措施裁定应考虑侵权的严重程度、给予的救济以及第三方利益之间的“比例”或“均衡”(proportionality)。但这样的规定与通用于WTO所有规则的“比例”作为一项基本原则应该是不同的。不过,Axel Desmedt认为,WTO之所以目前没有明确的“比例”原则,一方面是因为WTO比较年轻,另一方面是因为WTO成员认为WTO应该是一个成员主导的机构,而DSB只能是关于规则的喉舌(mouthpieces)。他认为,WTO内“比例”原则的重要性将日益增大。他还认为,WTO规则中的“必要”、“合理存在”等规定可能成为“比例”原则的基础;他甚至指出,“‘必要’一词很明显暗含(allude)了比例的要求。”他还认为,由于DSB在SPS相关案例中曾裁定成员有权确定保护水平,而TBT协定则无类似规定和解释,因此,TBT协定比SPS协定更适合适用“比例原则”。当然,他也指出,可使用TBT协定“序言”中的有关规定来为成员关于管制权的管理问题做辩护。参见第100页注2,Axel Desmedt文,p.443,447 ,460,464。与Axel Desmedt观点类似,我国学者韩秀丽认为,“比例”原则“应该成为约束成员方政府行为及指导WTO法发展的基本原则”。前引38,韩秀丽文。
4参见Robert E.Hudec,GATT/WTO Constraints on National Regulation:Requiem For an“Aim And Effects”Test,The International Lawyer,Vol.32,No.3,Fall 1998,at http://www.worldtradelaw.net/articles/hudecrequiem.pdf,accessed 2012-7-25。而Joel Trachtman甚至认为该规定导致TBT协定含有“成本—收益分析”的内容。参见第100页注8,Joel Trachtman文,p.69。Panagiotis Delimatsis也认为,TBT第2.2条注重考虑措施的贸易效果,以及目标未实现存在的风险。这实际上含有“成本—收益分析”的要素。
5参见第106页注1,S/WPDR/W/27,para.4。诸多学者也引用WTO秘书处该表述说明WTO秘书处认为WTO内“必要性”含有“严格比例原则”,如前引16,Deborah Akoth Osiro文,p.124。
6参见第98页注2,Axel Desmedt文,p.462。
7参见第105页注瑏瑢,para.52。
8参见第98页注2,Axel Desmedt文,pp.477-479。
9参见第98页注3,Deborah Akoth Osiro文,p.134。
1参见第109页注1,Robert Howse and Elisabeth Tuerk,p.326;Robert Howse and Elisabeth Tuerk,“The WTO Negotiations on Services:The Regulatory State up for Grabs”,Canada Watch,Vol.9,No.1-2,September 2002,p.4。我国学者也指出了“比例原则”丰富的价值判断内涵。参见第97页注1,范剑虹文。
2参见第109页注4,John McGinnis,Mark Movsesian,pp.585-587。
3参见第108页注10,Alan Sykes文,pp.6-7。
4See Joel Trachtman,“Trade andProblems,Cost-Benefit Analysis and Subsidiarity”,European Journal of Economic Law,Vol.9,No.1,1998,p.55,84,46.
5参见第108页注3,Deborah Akoth Osiro文,p.129。Robert Howse等也认为专家组和上诉机构不适合“远距离”地超越当地政府管制制定程序和民主机构进行臆断。参见第109页注1,Robert Howse and Elisabeth Tuerk,p.287。
6如Panagiotis Delimatsis指出,在欧盟法院的实践中,“欧盟法院在考虑某措施是否合比例时,经常不适用比例测试的第三个要求(严格比例)”。参见第96页注3,Panagiotis Delimatsis文,p.390。针对瑞典酒类广告禁令,欧盟法院曾认为,成员法院更适合作出相关判断,从而回避了欧盟法院直接就与当地庶民偏好密切联系的实务的司法裁决。参见Judgment of the Court(Sixth Chamber)of 8March 2001.-Konsumentombudsmannen(KO)v Gourmet International Products AB(GIP).Case C-405/98,para.33。
7参见第109页注1,Robert Howse and Elisabeth Tuerk,p.328。
1参见第109页注4,John McGinnis,Mark Movsesian,p.567;参见第98页注2,Axel Desmedt文,p.442。
2在Joel Trachtman看来,美、欧和WTO的相关条款都有因无明确文本基础而饱受争议的经历。参见第100页注8,Joel Trachtman文,p.59。参见第108页注10,Alan Sykes文,p.1;Jan H.Jans,“Proportionality Revisited”,Legal Issues of Economic Integration,Vol.27,No.3,2000,pp.239-265;Pal,Wenneras,“The De Coster Case:Reflections on Tax and Proportionality”,Legal Issues of Economic Integration,Vol.29,No.2,pp.219-230。
3参见第100页注8,Joel Trachtman文,p.38。
4参见第110页注4,Robert E.Hudec文。
5See Sol Picciotto,Private Rights vs Public Standards in the WTO,Review of International Political Economy,Vol.10,No.3,Aug.2003,pp.377-405.
6See Richard Baldwin,“Regulatory Protectionism,Developing Nations,and a Two-Tier World Trade System”,in S.Collins and D.Rodrik(eds.)Brookings Trade Forum,2000.The Brookings Institute,Washington D.C.pp.237-293.
7参见第109页注4,John McGinnis,Mark Movsesian,pp.511-605;参见第109页注1,Robert Howse and Elisabeth Tuerk,p.284,footnote 11。
8See Michael Trebilcock and Robert Howse,“Trade Liberalization and Regulatory Diversity:Reconciling Competitive Markets with Competitive Politics”,European Journal of Law and Economics,1998,vol.6,issue 1,pp.5-37.
9参见第109页注4,John McGinnis,Mark Movsesian,p.563,footnote 296。
参见第100页注8,Joel Trachtman文,p.48。关于WTO自由贸易偏向的评论,参见John McGinnis,Mark Movsesian,“The World Trade Constitution”,Harvard Law Review,Vol.114,No.2,Dec.2000,p.534。
1国际层面相关安排的倒逼机制一般不会为政客或政策明言。关于倒逼机制在实践中的具体安排和做法,可参见Robert Putnam,“Diplomacy and Domestic Politics:The Logic of Two-level Games”,International Organization,Vol.42,1988,pp.427-460。
2参见第109页注4,John McGinnis,Mark Movsesian,p.534,footnote 135。
3荷尔蒙禁令从立法目的来说,被认为主要是出于对国内选民对食品安全问题关注的反应,而未必是以贸易目的为初衷。这一禁令是欧盟议会基于选民意愿作出的政治决定,欧盟法院也认为“欧盟的禁令不必只是依靠科学数据,对欧洲议会所表示的政治关注以及消费者的‘焦虑和期望’作出反应是允许的”。在这种情况下,对于欧盟委员会来说,遵循欧盟的政治选择,应该比遵守WTO规则更为重要。因此,DSB裁决该措施违规和对制裁措施的认可,均未导致欧盟调整其限制措施。参见安佰生:《论WTO与标准化组织的委托—代理机制》,见《国际经济学法学刊》,2011年第18卷第3期,北京大学出版社2011年版,第182-185页。
4参见第100页注8,Joel Trachtman文,p.36。
5参见第110页注4,Robert E.Hudec文。考虑到WTO应该是一个政治敏感性国际机构,在当前国际贸易形势趋紧,贸易保护主义甚至有抬头趋势的情况下,WTO争端解决机构面临着一个严峻的挑战:在成员在服务贸易国内管制谈判中对“必要性测试”并不友好的情况下,如何在今后的裁决中通过该测试的解释处理好成员管制主权和自由贸易的关系。考虑到当前主要成员对透明度和管制合作的相对友好立场,专家组和上诉机构也许应更多关注国内管制与自由贸易关系处理规则中的相关程序性规定,而将“必要性测试”的实体性内容留给成员通过“立法”解决。当然,这并不意味着专家组和上诉机构应该在未来争端解决中在该测试解释上过分自我克制。关于成员在透明度和管制合作问题上的立场的介绍,参见安佰生:《论WTO与标准化组织的委托—代理机制》,见《国际经济学法学刊》,2011年第18卷第3期,第182-185页。
基本信息:
DOI:10.16823/j.cnki.10-1281/d.2015.02.010
中图分类号:D996.1
引用信息:
[1]安佰生.WTO“必要性测试”规则探析[J].财经法学,2015,No.2(02):95-113.DOI:10.16823/j.cnki.10-1281/d.2015.02.010.
2015-03-15
2015-03-15